Talisman Energy

Talisman Energy Inc. (Talisman) is an independent Canadian oil and gas producer. Talisman is a company that has been through a great deal of criticism due to their negative experience in Sudan in previous years. They were accused of numerous things such as fueling the civil war, believing the Sudanese Government was using oil revenues to purchase weaponry, and of being complicit in human rights abuses because of fees and royalties paid to the government for the rights to explore oil and gas.Now, Talisman is faced with the decision of whether or not they should enter into Kurdistan, knowing that the same thing can happen there as it did in Sudan. The KRG is asking for $220 million in exchange for allowing Talisman to search for oil reserves. Not knowing what the KRG will use the money for, whether it’s to improve economic development or to purchase weaponry creates a dilemma for Talisman. The board of directors had first-hand experience of the damage to Talisman’s reputa tion. With proper due diligence and continuous re-evaluation of the situation in Kurdistan, Talisman should now find it easier to discover political risk and solve problems before they arise.Problem StatementTalisman Energy Inc. has encountered problems in the past when entering into politically unstable markets in other countries. Now they are faced with the decision whether to enter the oil-rich Kurdistan region of Iraq, knowing there are great risks associated with it. If they decide to enter Kurdistan, can they do it without facing the same problems as they did in Sudan?AnalysisTalisman’s interest in pursuing oil exploration in the Kurdistan region of Iraq has been shaped by many factors. First being that Kurdistan is estimated to have 39 million barrels of oil reserves. Second, Talisman was optimistic about the opportunity for foreign oil companies to tap into Iraqi oil now that Saddam Hussein had been defeated. Finally, the Kurdistan area was viewed as significantly saf er than the rest of Iraq. Talisman Energy Inc. is a company who has experience doing business in countries with high political risk. Political risk can be caused by conflict and violence, terrorism and kidnapping, property seizure, policy changes, and local  content requirements (Wild & Wild, International Business, 2012). Corruption sometimes plays a role in international business. See table 1 for the Corruption perception index. The higher the CPI score the less corruptive the country is.Table 1 Corruption Perception Index CountryCPI ScoreFinland9.0 to 10.0 Canada8.0 to 8.9 United States of America7.0 to 7.9 Spain6.0 to 6.9 Hungary5.0 to 5.9 Greece4.0 to 4.9 Mexico3.0 to 3.9 Russia2.0 to 2.9 Iraq1.0 to 1.9Talisman is now faced with the decision of whether or not they should enter into Kurdistan given the uncertainty in such an unstable region. Have they done the proper due diligence to proceed into Iraq. Iraq is a region with high political risk see Exhibit 1 (Wild & Wild, Inter national Business, 2012).Exhibit 1 Political risk around the WorldIn retrospect, should Talisman have gone into Sudan?Talisman made a good decision by entering Sudan. They were aware of the risks but the rewards were potentially high. It was for this reason they took the chance. They were faced with many challenges such as being blamed for influencing the Civil War. Overcoming these challenges only made the company stronger and more knowledgeable for similar future situations. What are the learnings from the Sudan experience?Talisman learned a great deal from the Sudan experience. They established a dedicated Corporate Responsibility Group (CR) in response to the events in Sudan. The CR group have developed Talisman’s CR policies, procedures and  reporting protocols. Over the years, they have included government relations and responsibility for assessing the risks involved in new projects, especially when entering countries that have high political risk. The company has als o added the International Code of Ethics for Canadian Business to its existing corporate code of ethics (Talisman Energy Inc.: The Decision to Enter Iraq, 2009). For more information on how Talisman manages their corporate responsibility see Exhibit 2.Exhibit 2 Talisman managing Corporate Responsibility Their commitment to corporate responsibility is founded in their company values. Their people put these values into action daily. Their dedication to making Talisman a great corporate citizen is built into the policies, systems, procedures and practices they have put in place to keep them improving. Their values include: Safety: Their goal is to create working conditions that cause no harm to people. Passion: They inspire others by the passion they demonstrate in their work. Results: They have a bias for results and take initiative to get things done efficiently, creating value for their shareholders. Respect: They take time to consider and appreciate other people’s points of view and treat the environment with respect.Excellence: They strive for excellence in what they do and how they do it. Teamwork: by working effectively together, they can deliver results far beyond their individual capabilities. Honest communication: They show courage to speak honestly and support others to do the same. How much money can Talisman make by entering Iraq?If the U.S geological survey is correct in estimating Kurdistan to have 39 billion barrels of oil reserves, then Talisman can make an enormous amount of money by entering Kurdistan. The world demand for oil in 2008 is forecast at 87 million barrels per day and the price of oil was US$130 per barrel (Talisman Energy Inc.: The Decision to Enter Iraq, 2009). The profit would be in the trillions. These large figures could cloud ones judgement when making such an important decision as this. The resources are there to generate huge profits but the circumstances they have to go through to do so  will have to be examined. W hat are the costs and benefits for Talisman to enter Iraq?CostsA 220 million dollar payment has to be paid to the Kurdistan Regional Government. Talisman’s entry might be viewed as support for the Kurdistan government as it was in Sudan and as a result there could be opposition form the U.S government, which supports the unity of Iraq and the Iraqi central government. There has yet to be an agreement on revenue sharing (Talisman Energy Inc.: The Decision to Enter Iraq, 2009). This could cause problems between the central government and the Kurdistan Regional government. A decision to enter Iraq could ruin the reputation of the company if the same thing were to happen there as in Sudan. The Iraqi central government controls Iraq’s export pipeline system. Without the ability to export the oil, Talismans oil revenue would be significantly curtailed.Benefits†¢Have access to large amounts of oil reserves. †¢Financial growth resulting in trillions of dollars in pro fit. †¢An opportunity to invest in the region of Kurdistan. †¢An opportunity to increase the company’s overall market share. †¢An increased level of profit as a result of cheaper labour than other business ventures.Discussion of AlternativesThere are some alternatives that may help solve Talisman’s problems. Presented here are some advantages and disadvantages of each as well as how each would affect the company as a whole and the country in which it is conducting business. One alternative would be to become more involved in the country where the business is taking place. A positive image needs to be put forth. Talisman needs to show others that it wants to make a difference in the Kurdistan region. With the $220 million that is to be paid to the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG), it is possible that Talisman could approach the KRG and make some kind of a deal regarding the use of the money. Hopefully this will ensure that it is used to build affordabl e housing, hospitals, schools, roads, and improve drinking water.This has all been destroyed or damaged by past conflict within the country. The advantage of this action results in proving to others that the money is being spent to  improve economic development in the region of Kurdistan and not to create independence from Iraq. A disadvantage of this would be the actual cost to carry out such an amount of work. Ultimately, it would improve their public image and presence in Kurdistan and hopefully prevent any controversy while being there. Another alternative would be to continually evaluate their position while in Kurdistan. This involves evaluating risk to prevent unexpected risks from occurring or exposure to them. By doing this, Talisman would always be on top of the situation at hand and it will allow them to become more proactive in their presence there. It will also help them to decide to stay or leave at any particular time. An advantage of this would be awareness of the local conditions and political/economic environment.They would re-evaluate the risks on a regular basis. This should prevent them from making the same mistakes as they did in Sudan. A disadvantage of this again would be that it is more costly. In addition, Talisman is risking the chances of another company taking the opportunity to enter the region and gain control of the oil reserves. The end result would be that Talisman would be receiving constant updates on the situation in Kurdistan.RecommendationTalisman Energy Inc. is a company that has had their fair share of problems when dealing with areas involving high political risk, such as Sudan. During their time there, they learned a great deal about risk and what to look for to reduce it to an acceptable level for investment purposes. The best way to reduce risk is too continually evaluate the region in which they are conducting business. With all the experience that Talisman has gained in Sudan they should now have a higher level of knowledge and comfort in doing business in Kurdistan. Talisman should now find it easier to discover political risks in new investment ventures. By completing the proper due diligence and exploration of political, legal, social and human rights issues, they should excel in doing business in the Kurdistan region.One must always remember when conducting business in an area with high political risks come high cost. If Talisman decides to enter Kurdistan it has to make sure that the $220 million dollar payment to the Kurdistan Regional Government is transparent and that it meets the standards of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (Talisman Energy Inc.: The Decision to  Enter Iraq, 2009). A deal should try and be made with the KRG to ensure that the money be spent on economic development and not on weapons. This would show the people of the region and the world that Talisman wants to help the people of Kurdistan improve their country, while at the same time establish a viable relationship with the region in order to successfully operate its business in the oil industry. Talisman Energy Executive SummaryTalisman Energy Inc. (Talisman) is an independent Canadian oil and gas producer. Talisman is a company that has been through a great deal of criticism due to their negative experience in Sudan in previous years. They were accused of numerous things such as fueling the civil war, believing the Sudanese Government was using oil revenues to purchase weaponry, and of being complicit in human rights abuses because of fees and royalties paid to the government for the rights to explore oil and gas.Now, Talisman is faced with the decision of whether or not they should enter into Kurdistan, knowing that the same thing can happen there as it did in Sudan. The KRG is asking for $220 million in exchange for allowing Talisman to search for oil reserves. Not knowing what the KRG will use the money for, whether it’s to improve economic development or to purchase weaponry creates a dilemma for Talisman. The board of directors had first-hand experience of the damage to Talisma n’s reputation. With proper due diligence and continuous re-evaluation of the situation in Kurdistan, Talisman should now find it easier to discover political risk and solve problems before they arise.Problem StatementTalisman Energy Inc. has encountered problems in the past when entering into politically unstable markets in other countries. Now they are faced with the decision whether to enter the oil-rich Kurdistan region of Iraq, knowing there are great risks associated with it. If they decide to enter Kurdistan, can they do it without facing the same problems as they did in Sudan? AnalysisTalisman’s interest in pursuing oil exploration in the Kurdistan region of Iraq has been shaped by many factors. First being that Kurdistan is estimated to have 39 million barrels of oil reserves. Second, Talisman was optimistic about the opportunity for foreign oil companies to tap into Iraqi oil now that Saddam Hussein had been defeated. Finally, the Kurdistan area was viewed as significantly safer than the rest of Iraq.Talisman Energy Inc. is a company who has experience doing business in countries with high political risk. Political risk can be caused by conflict and violence, terrorism and kidnapping, property seizure, policy changes, and local  content requirements (Wild & Wild, International Business, 2012). Corruption sometimes plays a role in international business. See table 1 for the Corruption perception index. The higher the CPI score the less corruptive the country is.Table 1 Corruption Perception Index Country CPI ScoreFinland9.0 to 10.0 Canada8.0 to 8.9 United States of America7.0 to 7.9 Spain6.0 to 6.9 Hungary5.0 to 5.9 Greece4.0 to 4.9 Mexico3.0 to 3.9 Russia2.0 to 2.9 Iraq1.0 to 1.9Talisman is now faced with the decision of whether or not they should enter into Kurdistan given the uncertainty in such an unstable region. Have they done the proper due diligence to proceed into Iraq. Iraq is a region with high political risk see Exhibit 1 ( Wild & Wild, International Business, 2012). Exhibit 1 Political risk around the World)In retrospect, should Talisman have gone into Sudan?Talisman made a good decision by entering Sudan. They were aware of the risks but the rewards were potentially high. It was for this reason they took the chance. They were faced with many challenges such as being blamed for influencing the Civil War. Overcoming these challenges only made the company stronger and more knowledgeable for similar future situations. What are the learnings from the Sudan experience?Talisman learned a great deal from the Sudan experience. They established a dedicated Corporate Responsibility Group (CR) in response to the events in Sudan. The CR group have developed Talisman’s CR policies, procedures and  reporting protocols. Over the years, they have included government relations and responsibility for assessing the risks involved in new projects, especially when entering countries that have high political risk. The company has also added the International Code of Ethics for Canadian Business to its existing corporate code of ethics (Talisman Energy Inc.: The Decision to Enter Iraq, 2009).For more information on how Talisman manages their corporate responsibility see Exhibit 2. Exhibit 2 Talisman managing Corporate Responsibility Their commitment to corporate responsibility is founded in their company values. Their people put these values into action daily. Their dedication to making Talisman a great corporate citizen is built into the policies, systems, procedures and practices they have put in place to keep them improving. Their values include: Safety: Their goal is to create working conditions that cause no harm to people.Passion: They inspire others by the passion they demonstrate in their work. Results: They have a bias for results and take initiative to get things done efficiently, creating value for their shareholders. Respect: They take time to consider and appreciate other peopleà ¢â‚¬â„¢s points of view and treat the environment with respect. Excellence: They strive for excellence in what they do and how they do it. Teamwork: by working effectively together, they can deliver results far beyond their individual capabilities. Honest communication: They show courage to speak honestly and support others to do the same. How much money can Talisman make by entering Iraq?If the U.S geological survey is correct in estimating Kurdistan to have 39 billion barrels of oil reserves, then Talisman can make an enormous amount of money by entering Kurdistan. The world demand for oil in 2008 is forecast at 87 million barrels per day and the price of oil was US$130 per barrel (Talisman Energy Inc.: The Decision to Enter Iraq, 2009). The profit would be in the trillions. These large figures could cloud ones judgement when making such an important decision as this. The resources are there to generate huge profits but the circumstances they have to go through to do so  will ha ve to be examined. What are the costs and benefits for Talisman to enter Iraq?CostsA 220 million dollar payment has to be paid to the Kurdistan Regional Government. Talisman’s entry might be viewed as support for the Kurdistan government as it was in Sudan and as a result there could be opposition form the U.S government, which supports the unity of Iraq and the Iraqi central government. There has yet to be an agreement on revenue sharing (Talisman Energy Inc.: The Decision to Enter Iraq, 2009). This could cause problems between the central government and the Kurdistan Regional government. A decision to enter Iraq could ruin the reputation of the company if the same thing were to happen there as in Sudan. The Iraqi central government controls Iraq’s export pipeline system. Without the ability to export the oil, Talismans oil revenue would be significantly curtailed.Benefits†¢Have access to large amounts of oil reserves. †¢Financial growth resulting in trillio ns of dollars in profit. †¢An opportunity to invest in the region of Kurdistan. †¢An opportunity to increase the company’s overall market share. †¢An increased level of profit as a result of cheaper labour than other business ventures. Discussion of AlternativesThere are some alternatives that may help solve Talisman’s problems. Presented here are some advantages and disadvantages of each as well as how each would affect the company as a whole and the country in which it is conducting business. One alternative would be to become more involved in the country where the business is taking place. A positive image needs to be put forth. Talisman needs to show others that it wants to make a difference in the Kurdistan region. With the $220 million that is to be paid to the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG), it is possible that Talisman could approach the KRG and make some kind of a deal regarding the use of the money.Hopefully this will ensure that it is use d to build affordable housing, hospitals, schools, roads, and improve drinking water. This has all been destroyed or damaged by past conflict within the country. The advantage of this action results in proving to others that the money is being spent to  improve economic development in the region of Kurdistan and not to create independence from Iraq. A disadvantage of this would be the actual cost to carry out such an amount of work. Ultimately, it would improve their public image and presence in Kurdistan and hopefully prevent any controversy while being there. Another alternative would be to continually evaluate their position while in Kurdistan.This involves evaluating risk to prevent unexpected risks from occurring or exposure to them. By doing this, Talisman would always be on top of the situation at hand and it will allow them to become more proactive in their presence there. It will also help them to decide to stay or leave at any particular time. An advantage of this would be awareness of the local conditions and political/economic environment. They would re-evaluate the risks on a regular basis.This should prevent them from making the same mistakes as they did in Sudan. A disadvantage of this again would be that it is more costly. In addition, Talisman is risking the chances of another company taking the opportunity to enter the region and gain control of the oil reserves. The end result would be that Talisman would be receiving constant updates on the situation in Kurdistan.RecommendationTalisman Energy Inc. is a company that has had their fair share of problems when dealing with areas involving high political risk, such as Sudan. During their time there, they learned a great deal about risk and what to look for to reduce it to an acceptable level for investment purposes. The best way to reduce risk is too continually evaluate the region in which they are conducting business. With all the experience that Talisman has gained in Sudan they should now have a higher level of knowledge and comfort in doing business in Kurdistan.Talisman should now find it easier to discover political risks in new investment ventures. By completing the proper due diligence and exploration of political, legal, social and human rights issues, they should excel in doing business in the Kurdistan region. One must always remember when conducting business in an area with high political risks come high cost. If Talisman decides to enter Kurdistan it has to make sure that the $220 million dollar payment to the Kurdistan Regional Government is transparent and that it meets the standards of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (Talisman Energy Inc.: The Decision to

Fishing from heaven

The frost clung to the surroundings as I made my way down the old crooked path. It was early morning and the sun was attempting to wedge its way through the clouds: it remained ice cold. There was little life to be seen – most animals were hidden away from the dangers and cruelty of winter. They had collected their food and were snuggled away ready to sleep the months through. At that moment I wished I could join them. Why couldn’t I run away and hide until I was ready to face life again? As I trod over the cold granite with the fellow mourners I could see nothing of happiness. Everything hung in dismay as if even nature knew this was a wretched and lonely place. I imagined the gloomy individuals walking this route over the decades. It was a path that had to be travelled but very few were ready or willing to face its destination. Instead we all hoped something would suddenly change and that our fate would be reversed. The daunting doors appeared ahead and I made my way inside along with the others – all of us coated in black. I shivered, no longer because of the temperature but rather fear, as I made my way inside the thick stone walls. The mighty roof towered over me shadowy and oppressive. I found my pew and sat down alone to wait. The tranquilising smell of burning incense combined with my tired state almost lulled me to unconsciousness but a stern voice suddenly called for the beginning of the service and I turned to face the altar. It was covered in a white cloth which hung loosely over the sides clearly too big. A cross made up the centrepiece and a candle stood on either side. I’d never been to a church before but I knew granddad had. I imagined him looking at this cross and, like me, wondering why life had to happen the way it did. The music sounded and they began to enter – the robed man and the six friends of my grandfather. I only knew one of them. They had gone to school together and granddad would always tell stories of their misbehaving – tricking the teacher and missing classes. I saw his friend dim with dread no longer a schoolboy with a future of brightness ahead. His head hung low as he made his way down the aisle. The lid of the coffin was lifted and his face tightened as he saw his friend for the last time. Granddad’s face was withered and frail, his lips rose pink and dry. They had dressed him in his favourite suit especially for the occasion. His body lay stiff, fragile and delicate – but strangely imposing. This was not how I remembered him. Vulnerability and helplessness had overcome him. His intelligent being was hidden – deposed by death. * * * It was a spring morning and the lake glistened in the sun. Not a ripple disturbed the perfect reflections. The smell of freshly painted wood hung in the air as the boat entered the water. Its green body caused it to appear like a lily-pad against the still expanse. I was trembling with excitement: I had never been on a boat before. We lived in the town where buildings filled the landscape. It was only when I came here on holiday that I got to see the amazing aspects of nature so forgotten in cities where cars and buses have taken over. First grandfather gave me a rod. He smiled as I looked at this alien object with uncertain eyes. He loaded the reel, explained how to make a blot knot, stuck on the tiny squirming pinkie and cast into the distance. He stressed the importance of doing this properly so as to avoid whipping your neighbour or startling the surrounding fish. Looking at granddad I stared intently at the thick folds throughout his face, his hunched over body and the shadows b eneath his eyes. As he cautiously scanned the horizon he noticed my attention had wavered and stared right into my soul seemingly extracting my thoughts. â€Å"Ethan, old age is nothing to fear but something to grasp with open arms and imagine the life past and still to come. You must remember that. This moment will pass but the memory remains forever and that’s what we hold on to even when death arrives.† I turned away not sure what he meant and focused back on my fishing. My line went taut and I was pulled back to the present. The fish wriggled desperately trying to free itself from the cruel spike threatening its life. It was helpless against my strong grasp. My determination to impress granddad and the weak power of the fish enabled me to reel the rod all the way in. I had caught a fish – a trout! It was avocado green speckled pink. I knew little of the types of fish but granddad told me it was a Yellowstone Cutthroat Trout native to this area. He smiled proud of what I had gained. * * * I wept bitter with regret as the pastor began to talk of grandfather’s life in such a dispassionate way. He knew nothing of the love I felt for him, of the kindness grandfather showed or of the suffering he endured in his last years. I wished I could have stood up and conjured up something which may have done him justice rather than this monatomic drone of weddings, birthdays and jobs. This was not all that my grandfather was. He was more than this. The room silenced as the pastor took to his seat. The roof of the coffin was replaced and the congregation bowed their heads remembering the man in their own way. I saw, not the cold lifeless face that had been laid before me this morning but the bright and warm-hearted glow from that fishing day. I saw him in his heaven with doves fluttering above a crystal ocean full of the most beautiful creatures.

Impact of Secondary use of Data Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Impact of Secondary use of Data - Essay Example In this scenario, secondary data is data that has already been collected by someone else for a different purpose and we want to use it. Some of the common examples of data collection could be: data presented by an organization for its business marketing, gathered by a hospitality firm on its guests by using its guest history system, annual business reports or Government statistics and figures (Thames Valley University, 2010). On the other hand data can be used in different scenarios such as: someone can simply present the original data in its unchanged format. In this scenario, probably this data will be used in the introduction or literature review as support or proof for their argument. A person can also make use of this data in a different way if this data is utilized (for analysis or interpretation) for a wide variety of purposes than the original then the most likely place would be in the ‘analysis of findings’ part of a research report or thesis. For instance, a research work carried out on suicide issue can comprise the official suicide data of different countries or regions (which was collected by government or their equivalent) and evaluate this data to determine if they could categorize variables that would indicate that some people are more likely to commit suicide as compared to others (Thames Valley University, 2010). However, there are numerous issues involved with the secondary usage of data. This paper will discuss the secondary uses of data, some of its advantages and disadvantages. In the end, this paper will discuss issues with secondary usage of data and laws to deal with these issues. Secondary Use of Data: An Overview No doubt secondary research can be considered as the most extensively used technique for collecting data as this process of data collection engages retrieving information that is previously collected from either the inventor or a distributor of primary research. In addition, secondary data comprises the information and data collected from third-party sources for instance a business website, sales and accounting records, marketing research reports and magazine articles. Moreover, it can also comprise any already collected information utilized by the vendor from any external or internal source (BlogSpot, 2008; Thames Valley University, 2010). Advantages of Secondary Use of Data In fact, there are a lot of benefits of making use of the s econdary data or research. First of the most important advantages of using secondary data is that it is relatively easy get access to a wide variety of sources of secondary data. Some time ago secondary data collection required business marketers or sales management to spend a lot of time in libraries, or wait for reports to be received via mail. On the other hand, at the present there exist a number of modern technologies for data collection for instance with the availability of the Internet and online access to a lot of digital resources, the access to the secondary data and information has become very simple. In fact, the Internet has become a convenient and usually standardized tool for all sources of secondary research. In addition, by making use of the secondary data researchers can be able to get access to important data and information for small or in many cases absolutely no cost to acquire. For that reason, this secondary data is much more affordable and less expensive as compared to other methods of data collection where researchers perform the research themselves. Additionally, the use of secondary data allows researchers to make clear the research problem. In many cases, secondary data is utilized before primary

Methodologies used for determining the sustainability of residential Essay

Methodologies used for determining the sustainability of residential and commericial properties - Essay Example The criteria are the following: Management – provision of a home user guide concerning the operation and environmental performance of the home, a considerate constructors scheme, a commitment on construction site impacts and a security conscious design. For Civil Engineering design and projects, the United Kingdom industry uses the assessment and awards scheme CEEQUAL. Like the the Code for Sustainable Homes, the CEEQUAL also use a points-scoring assessment but instead of 9 criteria, CEEQUAL is made up of 200 exhaustive questions relating to environmental and social impacts of a project including resource usage, ecological impact, waste management, community relations, landscaping and even archaeology. Projects are graded as Pass (>25%), Good (>40%), Very Good (>60%) and Excellent (75%). A CEEQUAL assessment is undertaken by a CEEQUAL-trained project member whose evaluations are checked by a certified CEEQUAL verifier. As with all point-rating system, the assessment can be affected by biases thereby leading to inaccurate points assigned. For example, the criterion MATERIAL in the Code for Sustainable Homes calls for a range of 0.3 to 1.8 points for sourcing building materials responsibly. While there is a technical guidance manual to help the assessor, the points assigned can still be subjective. There is also the question of whether the items such as composting facilities and rain water collection will actually be used. The Code seems to check only for its presence as having a home-user guide seems to be enough to earn points and not its actual application. Essentially, the assessment methods provides no guarantee on the degree of sustainability that could occur. Department for Communities and Local Government, 2006. Code for Sustainable Homes: A step-change in sustainable home building practice.[pdf] West Yorkshire: Department for Communities and Local Government. Available at www.planningportal.gov.uk/uploads/code_for_sust_homes.pdf>

Sexual Harassment lawsuits often include wrongful discharge Essay

Sexual Harassment lawsuits often include wrongful discharge - Essay Example More specifically, after announcing the relevant decision, an employee has to leave his/ her work without – practical – having any financial claim (compensation, lost benefits and so on) against the employer. Of course, the fact that employee was forced to quit – i.e. that it was not his/ her own willing but the result of the pressure made on him/ her because of specific facts taking place in the workplace – maybe leave space for relevant claims. In law, such a situation is commonly known as constructive wrongful discharge; employees that were forced to quit do not always manage to persuade the court regarding the facts on which their decision was based – i.e. a constructive wrongful discharge is rather difficult to be proved in practice; as a result an employee who suffered sexual harassment can be left with no work and no compensation even if he/ she had no other alternative but to proceed to the specific reaction (i.e. to quit). The specific issue has been extensively examined in the Courts across USA; the court’s decisions tend to vary in accordance with the circumstances of each particular case and the ability of the employee to convince the Court regarding the real facts of the particular conflict. In any case it has been proved that sexual harassment lawsuits are based on their majority on constructive wrongful discharge. The various aspects of sexual harassment are not particular difficult to be understood. They can involve in both verbal and actual harassment that is characterized by sexual references by the other employee’s (including the manager’s) side. The specific issue (sexual harassment is not easy to be described and analyzed especially if taking into account the conditions in modern workplace). In accordance with Feary (1994, 649) ‘sexual harassment does not result from ignorance about fact or law; it is a problem which will be resolved only when

Classroom Management and Student Discipline Research Paper - 2

Classroom Management and Student Discipline - Research Paper Example In this essay, I endeavor to engage in reflection particularly in classroom management and student discipline. Towards this end, I will be discussing various dimensions in classroom management and discipline in the context of my own personal experience. To fully engage in reflective practice, I will draw from relevant literature to assess my own practice. In assessing my practice, I will introduce two types of overarching skills: hard skills and soft skills from where specific strategies belong. I will then highlight areas of weaknesses and strengths. In conclusion, I will offer recommendations for my own practice that hopefully, will aid in both my personal and professional growth. In evaluating and reflecting upon my practice of classroom management and student discipline, I find it helpful to distinguish between two types of practices. First, I will refer to as technical strategies or hard skills. The second category I shall label as relationship strategies or soft skills. In the world of work, hard skills often refer to technical skills or procedures often involving machinery and computer protocols. In the classroom, technical strategies are those that involve planning, structuring and organizing systems and procedures to maintain an effective classroom environment. Soft skills on the other hand are the people skills that are employed to build on relationships. In the classroom, certain relationships are important and must be established to reduce disruptions and misbehaviour. Planning would be the key factor in Arrend’s (2009) preventative classroom management strategies. To be able to plan effectively though, it is highly important to know and understand the background of the students, which I usually invest in during the first term of the school year. I have found that this preparation facilitates not only making effective lesson planning

SHORT STORY, EXPOSITORY STYLE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

SHORT STORY, EXPOSITORY STYLE - Essay Example reater good of the child realize that though there are constitutional guarantees for equality men seems to be less equal than women in this perspective. During the divorce process, the father has to undergo child custody evaluation at which point he learns that the daily access to rear the child is shared or fully impeded. The father has to take immense efforts to convince the custody evaluator by pointing out the reasons why he is good as a custodial parent. The evaluation is a questionable process because it can be either rational or fair since evaluation is carried out without any benchmarks or standardized testing. It is even more difficult for fathers to be a custodial parent because the mother is usually given custody in the best interest of the child. According to Old Bureau of Census statistics the proportions at which the father and mother obtained to be the custodial parents in the early 90’s stood at 1:90, while 9% of the kids were assigned to the care of family members.. Though custody evaluations takes place, the evaluators conclude with an expected judgment which usually favors the mother to be the custodial parent because the child has been raised by the mother and she would be able to offer a more stable life. This leads to a reason that a father is disqualified for custody because they do not spend much time with the kids since they were working. But this should not be a reason to penalize men (Hughson, D). Court orders are sometimes biased even if the evaluation process finds the father to be most suitable custodial parent. On the social front, children who grow up without a father at home is at an increased risk of transforming into a criminal in the society. Children are also likely to drop out of school, indulge in drug abuse, commit suicide or get pregnant. Therefore gender bias towards fathers in gaining custody must undergo a change (Child Custody and Support). Fathers are back lashed when it comes to the custody of the child because

Medtronic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Medtronic - Essay Example Help analyse the underlying causes, strengths and weaknesses, market forces and factors that affect performance to determine the optimum objectives that the organization may target. Having briefly defined the role of the Board we look at how the Board of Directors of Medtronics has performed. Details provided in the case study paint a very positive picture of the proactive role that the Board has played in the success of the Company. It has done all that is required and gone several steps further. The role that the Board has played in strict adherence to the mission statement of the company and, in the drive of the company to excel in technology and quality initiatives is indeed commendable. The Board has been a friend and guide for management, evidenced by the comment of Bill George, "In addition to its traditional role of governance, the Medtronic board is very effective as a sounding board, to advise and consult with management on the challenges we face." (p1) or that of Earl Bakken, "As we have grown and evolved, we have leaned on our board of directors for their direction." (p3). The active interest that the Board has taken in the operations of the company, their focus on the long term, regardless of below par performance on the financial front, represent some of the peculiarities of the Medtronic board that may not be found in most companies. It is usual for boards to look at only financial performance for the quarter and stop at that. It is truly amazing to find a board that has such faith in the future of the company that temporary setbacks on the earnings per share (see performance results) have not led to the typical automatic reaction. As Bill George points out in his book "Authentic Leadership", the board was successful in grappling with the larger ethical issues of what an organization owes to the public and its employees beyond the narrow obligation to increase shareholder value. The relationship between the CEO, Bill George and the board are similarly cordial and mutual understanding and respect at a very high level exists. While the CEO handles operational management, he does not consider the careful watch that the board keeps

Balanced Whole System Parenting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Balanced Whole System Parenting - Essay Example This essay investigates the two sides of the argument concerning banning of Red Dye #40 in order to conclude on best scientifically acceptable option. Support for those in favour of banning Red #40 is based on an association of the food colouring with symptoms such as hypersensitivity in sections of the population. It is noted that Red #40 should be banned because of its side effects that include swelling around the mouth and causing hives for those who consume food dyed by the additive. The negative effects of Red #40 have also been experienced in children who have experienced extreme emotional reactions such as hyperactivity after consumption of the dyed food. The reaction is experienced a few hours after taking food with the affected children demonstrating violent disposition or lose self-control (Borg, 2012). Yu and Scherer (2007) support this argument noting elimination of the Red Dye #40 from food has been found to reduce the levels of hyperactivity, impulsivity, compulsive beh aviour and emotional difficulties. Additionally, some of the consumers buying this food and beverage with Red Dye #40 might not be aware of the effects even when there are labels indicating presence. Consequently, the most appropriate approach n dealing with the issue is banning Red Dye #40 to stop its sale in food stores. The argument against the banning of Red Dye #40 is based on refutations of some of the grounds used to call for the banning of the food-colouring additive. For instance, removal of Red Dye #40 from food should not be perceived as only means of eliminating hyperactive disorders for concerned children. This is because studies in this area have not been specific when assessing some of the symptoms.

Basic principles of economics and business strategy Essay

Basic principles of economics and business strategy - Essay Example Basic principles of economics and business strategy are intrinsically linked to the people and therefore any business and economic decision that is made, must take into consideration of the impact that they are going to have on the society at large. The people are the end users of any business venture and economic theories and economic policies, that are framed, are all designed to work towards the betterment of society. This two way relationship between the society and the business and economic decisions also form the basis of larger national objectives which are people centric. Main objective of any business is profit making which it derives by making its products and services available to people. Hence, the core business strategy of any business heavily relies on the fact that it products and services meet the needs and requirements of the people at large. Competitive pricing and strong market position are major business compulsions that are need driven and specially target the vulnerable segment of society who are more prone to buy their products and services. It is for this reason that businesses through the ages, have been conducting surveys and studies in order to gauge the preferences of the people so that one can establish financially viable business ventures. So it would be true if one says that all business decisions are designed to impact society.

Army Digital Mapping Center Essay Example for Free

Army Digital Mapping Center Essay A Candidate must be either :(a) a citizen of India or, (b) a subject of Nepal, or (c) a subject of Bhutan, or (d) a Tibetan refugee who came to India before 1st January 1962 with the intention of permanently settling in India, or (e) a person of Indian origin who has migrated from Pakistan, Burma, Sri Lanka or East African countries Kenya, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania (formerly Tanganiyka and Zanzibar), Zambia, Malavi, Zair Ethiopa and Vietnam, with the intention of permanently settling in India. Provided that a candidate who belongs to categories (b), (c), (d) and (e) above shall be a person in whose favour a certificate for eligibility has been issued by the Govt of India. Note : The application of candidate in whose case a certificate of eligibility is necessary, may be considered in the Deptt, and if recommended for appointment, the candidates may also be provisionally appointed subject to necessary certificate being issued in his favour by the Govt of India. Applications of the Candidates who does NOT fulfill the eligibility criteria will be out right and NO intimation in this regard will be given to the candidates. Minimum Qualification 2. All applicants must fulfill the educational requirements of the post, age and other conditions as stipulated in advertisement. They are advised to satisfy themselves before applying that they possess at least the essential qualification laid down for relevant post. No enquiry for advice regarding eligibility will be entertained. Note – I. The prescribed essential qualifications are minimum and the mere possession of the same does not entitle candidates to be called for written examination. 2 Note – II. Where the number of applications received in response to an advertisement is large and it will not be convenient or possible for the Deptt to call for written test all the candidates, the Deptt at their discretion may restrict the number of candidates, to a reasonable limit based on the marks obtained in the qualifying examination. In case of grading system, the candidate must furnish conversion formula duly approved by the respective Board/Institute. . The candidate should mention all the qualifications and experience in the relevant field over and above the minimum qualifications and should attach attested copies of the certificate in support thereof. Candidates must apply in the application in the format published in this advertisement and fill up all the columns in their own hand in BLOCK letters in the presc ribed format as per Annexure 1. 5. Applications on formats other than the one indicated will be summarily rejected. 6.

Models Of Organisational Culture Management Essay

Models Of Organisational Culture Management Essay The research will present literature of various models of organisational culture. The research will concentrate on models of organisational culture by Schein, Hofstede, Denison and competing value framework models. This model will be presented to give a framework for organisational culture. The models of organisational culture are very important to the study as they explore the various perspectives of authors and how they are applied in organisational setting. The study will focus on the Denison model of organisational culture. 2.2.1 Schein (1992) discusses the levels of culture namely; artefact, espoused value, basic underlying assumption. 2.2.2 Artefacts Artefacts deal with organisational attribute that can be perceived, felt and heard as new members join the organisation, they are difficult to measure. According to Du Toit (2002), artefacts are visible, obvious expressions of culture. They are the tangible and audible demonstration of behaviour supported by organisational norms, values and assumptions. They range from aspects such as architecture, office design, language, rituals and celebrations. 2.2.3 Espoused Values This level deals with espoused goals, norms, standard, morals and principle, and it is measureable. It is the value from the foundation as to what is acceptable and what is not acceptable. They represent what is considered as right and wrong and forms an ethical code of the organisation. Norms relate to value that indicate the expectancy amongst members in the organisation. Norms offers the organisation with unwritten rules that shows the expectations in terms of actions appropriate to certain situation. Norms and values support the artefact of a culture (Du Toit, 2002). 2.2.4 Basic Underlying Assumption This level is the basis of the culture of an organisation. Basic assumptions are unconscious and are often taken for granted, but they are often how employees feel in an organisation. The basic assumptions are often taken for granted to the degree that there is little variation within culture unit. They serve as a guiding behaviour that tell people how to think, feel and perceive work, performance goals relationships and performance of co-workers. (Du Toit, 2002) Figure 1 Scheins Model of organisational Culture Source: Schein, E.H. organisational culture and leadership, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 1992, figure 9. 2.3 Hofstedes Model of organisational Culture Hofstedes four levels of culture are symbols, heroes, rituals, and values. This cultural model was for the relationship between organisational culture and local cultures. . 2.3.1 Symbols Symbols is the first level of this cultural model. Symbols convey a specific meaning within a culture, (Davidson, 2004). According to Denison (1990), symbols are the most obvious elements of culture, presenting the gestures, objects or words, which are acknowledged by those who belong to the same organisational culture. 2.3.2 Heroes Heroes according to Davidson (2004) are people who are recognised to have characteristics that are highly valued and most times are winners in the organisation. They function as models of behaviour within the organisation (Hofstede, 1985). 2.3.3 Rituals Rituals represent a number of activities in the culture that are extra but are considered socially vital. According to Hofstede (1985), symbols, heroes and rituals can be termed as practices, because they can be seen and observe. 2.3.4 Values According to Hofstede, the essential aspect of culture is formed by values, which are broad propensities to have a preference of certain state to others which are the deepest level of culture (Denison, 1990). Figure 2 Hofstede organisational culture model Source Adapted from Davidson (2004, p.47) 2.4 Competing Value Framework Model The competing value framework consists of two dimensions which have been encompassed into four groups. The first dimension is allied to organisational focus, from an internal emphasis on the well-being and development of individuals in the organisation and to an external emphasis on the well-being and development of the organisation itself. The second dimension distinguishes organisational preference for structure and signifies the difference between stability, control, flexibility and change. The two dimensions form the four quadrants of the model (Cameron and Quinn, 2006). 2.4.1 Clan Model The clan model in the upper left quadrant places a great importance on the flexibility and internal focus, and stresses on cohesion, moral and human resource development as standard for effectiveness. This model focuses on friendly working environment, like one big family where individuals have a lot in common and share things among themselves. Leaders are seen as mentor, and they represent a parental symbol. What keeps the organisation together is loyalty, custom and teamwork. The organisation focuses on long-run remunerations of individuals development with a sense of high unity and morale being important, whilst commitment becomes very high (Cameron Ettington, 1988). Accordingly, Cameron and Quinn (1991) argued that clannish organisations place importance on attachment, affiliation and membership support. The definition of achievement at this level is in terms of thoughtfulness to clients and concern for people, exceptional focus is on teamwork, involvement and harmony in the org anisation (Cameron Quinn, 2006). 2.4.2 Adhocracy model The Adhocracy model is located in the upper right quadrant emphasising on flexibility and external focus, and highlight on readiness, growth, resource, acquisition and external support. The organisation is measured as a vigorous, enterprising, and resourceful workplace, where employees stick their necks out to take risks for the organisation. Leaders are ambitious, productive and risk-oriented. The organisation is held together by commitment to experiment and invention. The focus is being at the foremost edge of work knowledge, products and other services. Willingness for change and meeting new challenges are significant. The organisations long- run emphasis is on fast growth and obtaining new resources. Denison and Spreitzer (1991) argued that, the resources are predicted to cultivate innovation and cutting-edge output. Behaviours come from members creativity, self-determination and adaptability (Cameron and Quinn, 2006). 2.4.3 Market model This model is located in the lower right quadrant with emphasis on control. It has internal focus, and stresses on the role of information management, communication, stability and control. The most important attention is for work to done. Leaders become motivating creators, directors, and contestants. Leaders are tough and demanding. The bond that holds the organisation together is on importance on winning. The long-run concern is on competitive movements and achieving strategic goals and targets. The style of the organisation is striving on competiveness (Cameron and Quinn, 2006). 2.4.4 Hierarchy model Hierarchy model is in the lower left quadrant. This model emphasises on control. It has external focus, and views planning, goal setting, productivity and efficiency as effective. It is branded as a formal and organized place to work. Measures and well define practice govern what people do. Leaders in the organisation are good coordinators, planners, and efficient experts. The long-run of the organisation are constancy, expectedness and efficiency. Official guidelines and policies hold the organisation together (Cameron Quinn 2006). Behaviours that affect these values consist of conformity and predictability. Denison and Spreitzer (1991) argued that these values, in turn, promote efficiency, timeliness, and smooth functioning. Figure 3 Competing Value Framework Source from Cameron and Quinn (1999) 2.5 The Denison Organisational Culture Model. Denison (1990) established four basic views of organisational culture traits namely; mission, consistency, involvement and adaptability 2.5.1Mission Denison (1990) postulates that, culture that offers a shared definition of the role and purpose of the organisation is not only positively linked with putting in their efforts in the interests of the organisation, but also helps in finding the direction and goals which makes it easier to select appropriate course of action for the organisation. A sense of mission permits an organisation to shape present behaviours by predicting a desired future state. Being able to adopt and recognise with an organisations mission contributes both short and long-term commitment to the organisation. Organisations that have low mission scores usually have top executives who concentrate on controlling their organisation, second-guess their direct report and make thorough decisions about products, people and resources. Also, organisation with low mission scores respond to competitors who have redefined the rules, goals and not very understanding to many employees and the long term drive of the organisation is not very motivating. The mission model has three divisions; 2.5.1a. Strategic Direction and Intent A clear strategy intention communicates the organisations purpose and has a clear indication on how everyone in organisation can contribute and make an impact in the organisation (Denison et al., 2006). This affirms the argument by (Baker., 2002) that strategic planning and identification are very important for maintaining organisational culture (Baker., 2002). 2.5.1b Goals and Objectives According to Denison et al (2006), a clear set goals and objective can be associated to the mission, vision and strategy and this give a clear direction to employees in an organisation. To be able to function effectively an organisation should be able to plan future course of action and also have a well-defined understanding of where they are going and the strategy to get there. 2.5.1cVision Denison et al (2006) posit that, the organisation has a shared view of preferred future and it stands for core values and apprehends the heart and minds of the members of the organisation, whiles giving guiding principle and direction. Mobley et al (2005) discovered from a study when assessing a global office furniture firm that, high score on vision may be indicative to people in the organisation having a clear idea as to the vision of the organisation. Denison and Fey (2006) argued that mission is the most significant cultural characteristics for the organisations concentrating on sales growth. 2.5.2 Consistency Denison (1990) suggests that, a reliable procedure for exchanging information is communication because it brings about an agreement on the meaning of words, actions and other symbols and further argued that organisational members will enhance their internal co-ordination and stimulate meaning and a sense of identification when they have a common perspective, shared beliefs and communal values. Organisations are effective when they are consistent and well incorporated (Safflord, 1998). To back this view, Denison, 2006; Gordon and Ditomaso,1992; Schein, 1992; argued that, behaviour is rooted in the set of core value, that leaders and followers are capable in agreeing and including various points of view and that the organisations activities are well coordinated and integrates. A consistent organisation cultivates an idea and produce organisational systems that build an essential system of authority based on consensual support. 2.5.2a Core Value Members of organisations often share a set of values which generates a sense of identity and a clear set of expectation. A research in Russia, conducted by Denison and Fey (2006) indicated that employees viewed core values to be important. The response of employees showed that the main purpose of the firm is to uphold the integrity of the current authority structure. 2.5.2b Agreement When members of organisations are able to reach agreement on critical issues, there is an agreement. This involves the fundamental level of agreement and the capacity to settle the differences as they happen (Denison et al., 2006). A study conducted on the effect of organisational practices on individual attitudes and behaviour by Fisher and Alford (2000) discovered that it is important to establish if agreement within the organisation is about the main organisational practices. Agreement will build up the impact of organisational practices of individual work behaviour. Disagreement on the other hand will weaken the connection between organisational practices and work attitude and behaviour. 2.5.2c Co-ordination and Integration Different departments of organisation are able to work together to accomplish a common goal whiles organisational boundaries do not affect getting the work done (Denison et al., 2006). The Wyandotte city council did a research to determine ways to decrease operational cost and to enhance customer service. The Denison culture survey was administered and the outcome was low consistency scores which point out that the city council should enhance integration and co-ordination in order to increase operational effectiveness, (Buno and Bowditch, 1998). Organisations that have low consistency score most of the times have customers who get unsatisfied for the reason that no one seems to be able to speak for the whole organisation. According to Rondeau and Wagner (1999), strong consistency cultures which highlight adherence to formal roles, rules and regulation and traditions, were discovered to be usually less likely to use systematic approaches when reacting to change. 2.5.3 Involvement Involvement incorporates the significance that the organisation places on building the capabilities of its professional and administrative employees. The value that the organisation has on team orientation against individual accomplishment and the feeling of ownership is created by the high level involvement. According to Denison, Jonovics Young and Cho (2006), employees are committed to their work when they feel a strong sense of ownership. They indicated that, people at all levels believe that they have some contribution into decisions that will affect their work and will make them believe that their work is directly connected to the organisational goals. The involvement view on organisational culture postulates that, the role of organisational effectiveness is the level of involvement of organisations members participation. A sense of ownership and responsibility is created by a high level of involvement and participation. This ownership produces a high level of commitment to the organisation and an increasing ability to operate under circumstances of ambiguity. The outcome is an increase in the level of employee commitment to the organisation which tends to reduce the needs for formal systems of control in organisation and leading to performance improvement (Denison, 1990). Organisation with a high level of involvement depends on informal, voluntary and implicit control system instead of formal, explicit, bureaucratic control systems. On the other hand, organisation with low involvement generally shows an organisation whose employees are detached from their work, ignorant of its importance and its link to the rest of the organisation, reluctant to accept greater responsibility and are tentative about working with people who are not from their immediate circle (Denison et al., 2006) The involvement part of the Denison model has three divisions. 2.5.3a Empowerment According to Denison et al (2006), people have the authority, initiative and aptitude to manage their own work. This produces a sense of ownership and responsibility to the organisation. Greastey, Bryman, Dairity, Prince, Soetanto and King (2005) did an investigation on how empowerment is perceived by employees in a construction firm and discovered that the strict regulations and rules under which construction workers operate, hinder their freedom to impact the work that they do. Additional discoveries suggest that the role of the employees direct supervisor has a strong impact on the diffusion of empowerment. To concur this view, findings of an investigation done by Benko (2001) perceived that if employees were not constrained by rules, regulation and limitations, they were able work more efficiently, promptly and effectively. 2.5.3b Team Orientation Denison et el (2006) postulate that, organisation depends on team effort to get work done as value is placed on working together towards a common goal for which every employee feel jointly responsible. Scott et al (2003) conducted a research on team orientation; they found out that, group association and teamwork have been linked with greater implementation of continuous quality development practice. 2.5.3c Capability Development According to Denison et al (2006), capability development of the organisation is the continuously investment in the development of employees skills to enable the organisation to stay competitive and meet on-going business demands. Managers and employees must learn how they can work well in a market economy, so an organisational culture that place importance on training and capability development of workers is very essential, (Puffer, 1992). Research point out those effective organisations empowers and engages their employees, build their organisation around teams and develop human skill at all levels (Block, 1991; Buckingham Coffman, 1999; Lawler, 1996; Spreitzer, 1995). Fey and Denison (2006) discovered that involvement is the most key dimension of organisational culture for organisation whose primary aim is employees satisfaction. To harmonise this view, research conducted examining organisational culture in a hospital setting found that strong involvement cultures were possible to increase employee participation, increase employee training and development expenditure, and increase use of self-managed work teams (Rondeau and Wagner, 1999). 2.5.4 Adaptability Denison and Mishra (1995) argue that organisation which has a strong adaptability generally experience sales and growth market share. Organisations which have low adaptability score generally have an internal focus and struggle to respond to competitors, customers and employees with new ideas. Low adaptability organisations operate on apathy and their past accomplishment may possibly create barriers for future success. Top managers in these organisations devote their time responding to results of standard operating procedures, controlling the organisation and managing short-term performance, instead of leading change or long-term thinking (Denison et al., 2006). 2.5.4a Creating Change Denison et al (2006) argued that, an organisation is able to create adaptive ways to meet changing needs. It is also able to read the business environment to react quickly to trends and predict future changes. A research conducted by Price (2003) in assessing organisational culture in a manufacturing firm, discovered that most employees showed that they were not rewarded or respected for discovering new and better ways of doing things, and they are not able to quickly adapt, change is met with opposition and the organisation is not taking the initiative. Areas that need improvement were identified in order for the organisation to adapt to the external environment. 2.5.4b Customer Focus Customer focus mirrors the extent to which the organisation is motivated by a concern to satisfy its customers. The organisation recognises and responds to their customers and predicts their future needs (Denison et al., 2006). Price (2003) when assessing the organisational culture of the manufacturing firm reached that most employees felt that they were meeting the needs and expectations of the customers. 2.5.4c. Organisational Learning The organisation obtains, interpret indicators from the environment into opportunities. The opportunities serve as a means to inspire innovation, gain knowledge and develop competences (Denison et al., 2006). Rondeau and Wagner (1999) from the study they conducted reported that strong adaptability cultures emphasis employees innovation, risk-taking, internal flexibility and entrepreneurialism. Also according to Doherty and Hardy (1996) adaptability to the environment is an essential element in ensuring innovative success. Figure 4: Denison organisational culture model Adapted from www.denisonconsulting.com 2.6 ORGANISATIONAL COMMIMENT The idea of organisational commitment has increase in the literature on industrial and organisational psychology (Cohen, 2003). The theory of organisational commitment is a concept different from other concepts such as job satisfaction, job involvement, career salience, occupational commitment, turnover intentions and work group attachment (Cohen, 1993; Mathieu Farr, 1991; Meyer et al.,1993; Morrow McElroy, 1986; Mueller et al; 1992). Apart from being a different concept, organisational commitment adds exclusively to the forecast of important outcome variables such as performance, turnover and withdrawal behaviours (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990; Meyer et al, 1993; Tett and Meyer, 1993). Research has emphasised that commitment has a great impact on the successful performance of an organisation. A highly committed employee in an organisation will identify with the goals, objectives and values of the organisation and will have a strong desire of being associated with the organisation. 2.6.1 Definition of organisational commitment. The concept of organisational commitment was defined by Mowday et al (1982, p.27) as, the relative strength of an individuals identification with and involvement in a particular organisation. OReilly and Chatman (1986, p.493), defined organisational commitment as the psychological attachment felt by the person for the organisation; it will reflect the degree to which the individual internalises or adopts characteristics or perspective of the organisation. Organisational commitment has been defined as a psychological state that binds the individuals to the organisation (Allen and Meyers, 1990, p.14). Mathieu and Zajac, (1990, p.171) also defines organisational commitment as a bond or link between the individual and the organisation. However, Steers (1977) defined organisational commitment as a comparative strength of an employees identification and participation with an organisation. According to Mowday, (1992), commitment consists of three components, it is identification with the goals and values of the organisation, a desire to belong to the organisation and willingness to display effort on organisations behalf. Researchers suggest that commitment impacts behaviour independently of other motives or attitudes and, might lead to the persistence in a course of action even in the face of conflicting motives or attitudes. Thus, commitment can lead individuals to behave in a way that, from the perspective of neutral observers, might seem in contrast to their own self-interest, e.g. a temporary employee who is productive despite having no job security (Meyer and Herscovitch, 2001, p. 301). For the purpose of this research, the definition and components given by Allen and Meyer (1990) will be used. 2.6.2 Models of organisational commitment The research will present literature of various models of organisational commitment. The research will concentrate on the Morrows model, OReilly Chatmans model, Etzionis model, and Allen and Meyer model. These models will be presented to give a framework for organisational culture. The models of organisational commitment are very important to the study as they explore the various perspectives of authors and how they are applied in organisational setting. The study will focus on the Allen and Meyers model of organisational commitment. 2.6.3 OReilly and Chatmans model of commitment The model of commitment by OReilly and Chatman according to Herscovitch and Meyer (2001), was based on the theory that commitment signifies a frame of mind towards an organisation, and that there are different ways through which attitude can be cultivated. OReilly and Chatman (1986) argued that commitment takes three different forms, established on Kelmans work on attitude and behaviour change. The three commitment forms are as follows: Compliance Commitment, which is the instrumental involvement for specific extrinsic rewards. Identification commitment, which involves attachment based on a desired for affiliation with the organisation Internalisation commitment which involves envisaged on congruence between the individual and the organisational values. 2.6.4 Morrows model of commitment Morrow (1983) gives five different forms of organisational commitment. The forms of commitment are divided into two broad categories. The first category looks at commitment that impact work attitude with no association to organisation where one is working. These are Protestant work ethic (Mirels and Garret, 1971), Career commitment (Greenhaus, 1971) and Job commitment. The second category looks at commitment that are impacted by the organisation where one is working, these are continuance and affective organisational commitment (Allen and Meyers, 1993) 2.6.4a Protestant Work ETHIC (PWE) Protestant work ethic (PWE) according to Aaron Cohen (1999), determining factor are felt to be a principally a function of personality and secondarily a function of culture (Morrow, 1983). The character connection is based on the observation that ethical authorization with stable personality and demographic traits. Power work ethical is related to work experience variables or to work outcomes (Morrow, 1983). 2.6.4b Job Commitment Job commitment according to Aaron Cohen is a function of personality or individual difference and the work situation (Morrow, 1993). Thus demographic and work experiences are expected to relate to job involvement (Blau and Boal, 1989). 2.6.4c Career Commitment Blau(1985) suggest that the principal determinants in career commitment are; individual differences and situational characteristics. Therefore, for the demography variables, the same pattern of relationship is expected for career commitment with the job involvement. 2.6.4d Affective Commitment Affective organisational commitment was discovered to be related to a wide variety of literatures. Affective commitment is related to both demographic characteristics and work experience. (Mowday, Porter and Steers, 1982; Morrow, 1993) 2.6.4e Continuance Commitment Continuance commitment, which reflects the recognition of costs associated with leaving the organisation, should be related to anything that increases perceived costs. Direct or indirect investments in the organisation, side bets, represents such costs bets, represents such cost best, and were operationalized mainly by variables like age, education and tenure (Becker, 1960). Morrow (1983) posits that career commitment is linked to continuance and affective commitment to the organisation. Also continuance commitment to the organisation relates to affective commitment, both of these commitment influence job involvement. Morrow further argued that there is a reciprocal between the different levels of commitment. 2.6.5 Etzionis model of commitment The Etzionis model of commitment has three different forms, namely Moral commitment, Calculative commitment and Alternative commitment. 2.6.5a Moral Commitment Moral commitment is classified Etinios (1961) originate from a symbolic compliance structure which can epitomise one of the two affective commitment. Moral commitment is categorised by positive affective attachment and internalisation of organisational goals and values based on an agreement structure that stresses on material or symbolic reward, shared norms and personal dedication (Etzionis 1975; Penley and Gould, 1988) cited in Hornung (2010). Moral commitment is categorised by its identification with organisational goals (Patchen, 1970). Hall (1970) argued that moral commitment can be seen as a kind of organisational identification. To concur this, Wiener (1982) argued by presenting moral commitment as a form of affective organisational attachment commitment. He aligned it with the commitment work of Porter and his colleagues (Porter, Steers, Mowday Boulian, 1974; Steers 1977). Therefore, arguments such as Hall (1970), and Porter (1974) are presently intented to operationalize af fective scopes of commitment, similar to Etzionis (1961) moral involvement. 2.6.5b Calculative commitment The calculative commitment is established on employee getting incentives to their match contributions. According to Etzioni (1996), this type of attachment to the organisation as typical agreement systems based on exchange. It is theoretically embedded in the theory of Barnard (1938) and the theory of March and Simon (1958). Calculative commitment needs not to be decreased to willingness to keep organisational members. It may be seen in a wider terms of contributory attachment. The traditional perception of calculative commitment retention of organisational members may be more closely linked to the affective form of organisational commitment. 2.6.5b Alienative commitment The alienative commitment is characterised by a negative form of attachment in light of being forced to a course of action by environmental pressure, experienced loss of control and lack of alternative (Hornung, 2010). According to Etzioni (1975), alienative commitment is emblematic of a prison which a force compliance system is prevalent. Alienative commitment can be regarded as a foundation for organisational commitment if one thinks of organisational members commitment to the organisation as a result of lack of control over the internal organisational environment and recognised absence of substitutes for organisational commitment (Etzioni, 1961) The word alienation was acquired from Karl Max who gave alienation its classic meaning, a lack of control. To the alienative committed employee, rewards and punishment may be seen accidental instead of lack of alternatives for organisational commitment (Etzioni, 1961). The worker may see the random 2.6.6 Allen and Meyers model of commitment However, Allen and Meyer (1991) also give three forms of organisational commitment has made the biggest contribution to organisational commitment literature. Their three models will be chosen because it has gone through a wide empirical evaluation to date. Allen and Meyers argued the belief that commitment binds people to an organisation, thus decrease the probability of turnover. The main alteration is in the mind-sets assumed to categorise the commitment. These reproduced the three different types of commitment: 2.6.6a Affective Commitment Affective Commitment is the employee emotional attachment and identification to the organisation. Affective commitment is also the individuals emotional connection to, acknowledgment with and partaking in the organisation, (Allen and Meyer, 1997). Employees who are affectively committed to the organisation will possibly continue working for it for the reason that they want to (Allen and Meyer, 1991). Employees who are dedicated at an emotional l

Effect of Occupational Noise Pollution on Workers

Effect of Occupational Noise Pollution on Workers Noise pollution CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Background Noise means unpleasant sound that gives a disturbing and annoying effect to the listener. Noise pollution is any unwanted, disturbing, or harmful sound that impairs or interferes with hearing, causes stress, hampers concentration and work efficiency, or causes accident. Noise can block, distort, change or interfere with the meaning of a message in both human and electronic communication (Wikipedia, 2009). Agricultures workers are one of the highest contributors in the rate of noise pollution among all occupation. Any person who is exposed to an excessive noise pollution in long period may suffer hearing loss. The amount of damaged caused by noise depends on the total amount received over time. The degree of risk is affected by the intensity (loudness) and the frequency (pitch) of the noise, as well as the duration and pattern of exposure and the individual susceptibility to hearing impairment (CCOH, 2009). The increased spread of hearing loss from high frequencies through low frequencies with age and noise exposure is common for this population. Hearing loss of farmers is very characteristic of a sensor neural, bilateral sloping configuration resulting from both noise and aging. When age group data were compared to the hearing sensitivity values of the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), all farmer populations, age 20-60, showed more dramatically hearing loss than the comparison group. This also was true when the data were compared to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 1990 data. Physical ear discomfort to noise exposure starts from sound pressure level of 80-100 decibels (dB). A continuous noise level of 85 dB can result in hearing damage as well as create other various negative effects on health (League for the Hard of hearing, 2002). Noise induced hearing loss occurs gradually and without pain. Noise is often recorded as decibels dB (A) t o approximate how the human ears respond to noise. In Malaysia, noise exposure in work place is legislated under the Factories and Machinery Act (Noise Exposure) Regulation 1989, and Occupational and Safety Health Act (OSHA) 1994. This regulation makes it mandatory for noise level and workers exposure to noise is measured, assessed, and controlled. Malaysian permissible exposure level (PEL) refers to the limit of exposure that must not be exceeded by any employee over a specified time limit. These limits denote concentration levels above which exposure to chemicals hazardous to health must be controlled. To protect against chronic health effects of chemicals, the limits set are eight hours time-weighted average values. Excursions above the eight-hour time weighted average limit is allowed as long as it does not exceed three times this set limit. The farm tractor has a central role in field operations and often in stockyards and buildings too. It pulls lifts, powers and supports; it provides personal transport and shelter from the weather. It is often the main status symbol of the agricultural enterprise; this is why tractors are styled (like cars), why they are loved by enthusiasts (like steam railway engines), and why individual farmers often praise and are faithful to one particular make. Two aspects of tractor noise cause concern: the environmental noise heard by bystanders, either fellow road users or local residents, and the potentially harmful noise to which the operator is subjected. Environmental noise was the subject of a formal OECD test. In the 1960s the Institute harmonized details of the test procedure by comparing measurements in all European test stations. Noise screens for engines were successfully developed, but the dominant environmental noise arises from exhausts, where a balance must be found between silencer effectiveness and power loss. A separate study of the annoyance caused by farm noise of all kinds rated the tractor as much less annoying than axed plant such as grain driers. Objectives The study is focused on highlight that prolong to high level of occupational noise which can affect the hearing ability to agricultures worker who are using tractors and machines. To characterize noise exposure profile among agricultures workers at Seksyen Kejuruteraan Ladang, Taman Pertanian Universiti,Universiti Putra Malaysia. To evaluate safety practices among workers. Significant of study The purpose of this study is to determine and observe if the noise from heavy machine, agriculture machine, industry machine and agricultures tools that are related to noise can contribute to the incidence of hearing loss. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW Noise Noise is a word often used to mean unpleasant sound that the listener does not want to hear, although there are no physical characteristics distinguishing noise from wanted sound (Plog et. al., 2002). Noise means unpleasant sound that give a disturbing and an annoying effect to the listener. Noise pollution is any unwanted, disturbing, or harmful sound that impairs or interferes with hearing, causes stress, hampers concentration and work efficiency, or causes accident). Noise can block, distort, change or interfere with the meaning of a message in both human and electronic communication (Wikipedia, 2009). Noise environments of the type and severity associated with combustion engines and other noises arising from mechanisms or animals may have the following principle effects on the person exposed. The noise may be annoying to varying degrees, from being just objectionable to being unbearable. The performance may be affected due to a lowering of concentration, fatigue caused by longer exposed, rhythm disturbance, interference with sound cues associated with the work or interference with worker-to-worker communication in a team. Damage to hearing noise may be caused by noise; the character and to a lesser extent, the mechanism of this damage is now being understood. Both temporary and permanent components of hearing threshold shift are possible (Matthews, 1968). Noise is unwanted electrical or electromagnetic energy that degrades the quality of signals and data. Noise occurs in digital and analog systems, and can affect files and communications of all types, including text, programs, images, audio, and telemetry. In a hard-wired circuit such as a telephone-line-based Internet hookup, external noise is picked up from appliances in the vicinity, from electrical transformers, from the atmosphere, and even from outer space. Normally this noise is of little or no consequence. However, during severe thunderstorms, or in locations were many electrical appliances are in use, external noise can affect communications. In an Internet hookup it slows down the data transfer rate, because the system must adjust its speed to match conditions on the line. In a voice telephone conversation, noise rarely sounds like anything other than a faint hissing or rushing. Noise is a more significant problem in wireless systems than in hard-wired systems. In general, noise originating from outside the system is inversely proportional to the frequency, and directly proportional to the wavelength. At a low frequency such as 300 kHz, atmospheric and electrical noise are much more severe than at a high frequency like 300 megahertz. Noise generated inside wireless receivers, known as internal noise, is less dependent on frequency. Engineers are more concerned about internal noise at high frequencies than at low frequencies, because the less external noise there is, the more significant the internal noise becomes. Communications engineers are constantly striving to develop better ways to deal with noise. The traditional method has been to minimize the signal bandwidth to the greatest possible extent. The less spectrum space a signal occupies, the less noise is passed through the receiving circuitry. However, reducing the bandwidth limits the maximum speed of the data that can be delivered. Another, more recently developed scheme for minimizing the effects of noise is called digital signal processing (digital signal processing). Using fiber optics, a technology far less susceptible to noise, is another approach (Techtarget, 2010). Noise Pollution generally refers to unwanted sound produced by human activities unwanted in that it interferes with communication, work, rest, recreation, or sleep. Unlike other forms of pollution, such as air, water, and hazardous materials, noise does not remain long in the environment. However, while its effects are immediate in terms of annoyance, they are cumulative in terms of temporary or permanent hearing loss. Society has attempted to regulate noise since the early days of the Romans, who by decree prohibited the movement of chariots in the streets at night. In the United States, communities since colonial days have enacted ordinances against excessive noise, primarily in response to complaints from residents. It was not until the late 1960s, however, that the federal government officially recognized noise as a pollutant and began to support noise research and regulation. Federal laws against noise pollution included the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, especially sections concerning environmental impact statements; the Noise Pollution and Abatement Act of 1970; and the Noise Control Act of 1972, which appointed the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to coordinate federal research and activities in noise control. Charged with developing federal noise-emission standards, identifying major sources of noise, and determining appropriate noise levels that would not infringe on public health and welfare, the EPA produced its so-called Levels Document, now the standard reference in the field of environmental noise assessment. In the document, the EPA established an equivalent sound level (Leq) and a day–night equivalent level (Ldn) as measures and descriptors for noise exposure. Soon thereafter, most federal agencies adopted either the Leq, Ldn, or both, including levels compatible with different land uses. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) uses Ldn as the noise descriptor in assessing land-use compatibility with various levels of aircraft noise. In 1978 the research findings of Theodore J. Schultz provided support for Ldn as the descriptor for environmental noise. Analyzing social surveys, Schultz found a correlation between Ldn and people who were highly annoyed by noise in their ne ighborhoods. The Schultz curve, expressing this correlation, became a basis for noise standards. As part of its effort to identify major noise sources in the United States, the EPA set about determining the degree to which noise standards could contribute to noise reduction. During the 1970s, EPA-sponsored research on major noise sources led to regulation of the products that most affected the public, including medium and heavy trucks, portable air compressors, garbage trucks, buses, and motorcycles. Missing from the list was aircraft, which was considered the responsibility of the FAA. During the administration of President Ronald Reagan in the 1980s, the power of the EPA and its Office of Noise Abatement and Control was curtailed and most of its noise regulations rescinded. Even so, efforts continued to curb noise pollution. The Department of Transportation maintains standards for highways, mass transit, and railroads, as well as aircraft. The environmental review process, mandated by the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, remains the single most effective deterrent to noise pollution (Answer, 2010). Noise exposure Noise is one of the most important environment factors, which affects the workers health and efficiency. Noise can increase the overall workload of operators during a specific task and can affect the performance. As the result, noise affects workers health directly and indirectly (Parsons, 2000). Exposure to intense noise has been shown to damage the human hearing process and noise has been labeled as the most pervasive hazardous agent in the workplace (Milz et al., 2008). Among these effects are weariness, backhoe, nervousness, nausea, careless, etc (TÃ ¶r, 1989; Anonymous, 2002; Ekerbicer and Saltik, 2008). According to McBride et. al (2003), it is known that people working in agricultural facilities are exposed to some noise sources, but the risk appeared in the people who have been exposed to noise for many years have not been fully characterized yet. The reduction in the hearing loss does not decrease below 1000Hz (Akyildiz, 2000). It was showed that noise induced hearing loss increase up to 7dB in the first 10 years at 1000 Hz and 100 dB (A), and then gradually increases to 12 dB losses for exposure time of 40 years. The hearing loss is about 30 dB for first ten years exposure at 4000 Hz and 100 dB (A). It is clear that at 100 dB (A), the ear is much more sensitive to 4000 Hz compared to 1000 Hz. Maximum sound pressure level for 8 h/day exposure is accepted to be 85 dB at frequencies higher than 1000 Hz. At levels lower than this value, the risk of noise becomes the least (Grandjean, 1988). Lonsbury and Martin (2004) states that the beginning region of impairment involves the sensitive mid-frequency range, primarily of impairment involves the sensitive mid-frequency range, primarily between 3 and 6 kHz, and the corresponding impairment is classically described as the 4-kHZ notch. This particular pattern of appears regardless of the noise exposure environment. Sumer et al. (2006) explains that, there is a tendency of reducing daily noise exposure to below 90 dBA for an 8-h shift, and hence exposure level of 85 dBA is informally acknowledged to be the informal threshold sound pressure level. Therefore it is crucial to keep sound pressure levels within safety limits to avoid health related disturbances and work related inefficiencies. Sanders and McCormick (1992) explained that the ear is more sensitive to noise at frequencies over 2000 Hz and the sensitivity increase with age. Miyakita and Ueda (1997) wanted to determine the number of persons exposed to loss of hearing at levels above 40 dB at a frequency of 4 Hz; and as a result, estimated that 360,000 people working in agricultural facilities in Japan impaired their hearing abilities. This feature makes the agriculture their second biggest sector after the construction sector, which causes the loss of hearing abilities. Hearing loss from noise exposure Exposure to occupational noise has been linked to variety of physical effects such as work absenteeism and stress. The most profound effect of prolonged exposure to noise is the noise induced hearing loss (NIHL). NIHL is an irreversible sensory-neural hearing impairment caused by prolonged exposure to noise. NIHL causes communication interference that can substantially affect social integration and the quality of life. The development of NIHL depends on exposure time, intensity, frequency, type of noise, and the use of personal protective equipment (Ismail et al, unpublished). Noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) is a well and long recognized occupational hazard but methods of influencing attitudes towards noise hazard and prevention of hearing loss as a result a poor (World Health Organization, 1997). Although the effects of noise on hearing are not precisely defined and uncertainties remain, there is sufficient information to permit development of predictive indices of the hazardous effects of noise on human hearing sensitivity. The effects of noise on hearing may be divided into three categories which are acoustic trauma, noise-induced temporary threshold shift (NITTS) and noise-induced permanent threshold shift (NIPTS). Acoustic Trauma (immediate organic damage to the ear from excessive sound energy) is restricted to the effects of a single exposure or relatively few exposures at high sound levels. Extremely intense sound reaching the structures in the inner ear may exceed the physiologic limits of those structures producing a complete breakdown and disruption of the organ of Corti. Some degree of permanent hearing loss usually results from acoustic trauma. The precipitating episode is frequently dramatic so the person involved has no difficulty in specifying the onset of the resulting hearing problem. Noise-Induced Temporary Threshold Shift (NITTS) results in an elevation of hearing levels such as loss of hearing sensitivity, following shift the hearing loss is reversible. In Noise-induced Permanent Threshold Shift (NIPTS) the hearing loss is nonreversible; it remains throughout the lifetime of the affected person. There is no possibility of further recovery. Permanent threshold shift may result from acoustic trauma or may be produced by the cumulative effect of repeated noise exposure over periods of many years. The majority of those persons experiencing permanent hearing losses from noise sustain such losses from long periods of repeated noise exposure. Hearing ability decreases as age progresses. Age has been identified as one of the individual risk factors for sensory neural hearing loss (SNHL) among forest workers who handled chainsaws. Hearing loss induced among elderly miners in Romania was more pronounced compared to younger miners. The mean hearing threshold level (HTL) for the 40- 46 age group workers produced a decrease in HTL at frequencies 4, 6 and 8 kHz. Age is positively associated to hearing loss among metal processing factory workers in Brazil, with prevalence ratio of 4.02 for workers older than 40 years old (Ismail et. al, unpublished). Animals studies have shown that these chemicals interact synergistically with noise or potentiate its effect on auditory system. Workers exposed to chemicals have significantly poorer pure-tone thresholds compare to those not expose (Morata et al., 2003). Lonsbury and Martin (2004) gave audiogram results that show audiometric patterns of hearing levels from patients in beginning stages of noise induced hearing loss and examples were given for males and females exposed to noise in different environments including industrial noise. Hearing loss was not observed at frequencies below 1000 Hz and was sharpest above 2000 Hz for a male industrial worker. Patients working in different sectors showed that the hearing loss might not be observed below 2000 Hz in different work environments while others might experience hearing loss at about 1000 Hz. The sensitivity is also affected by gender and the number of years worked in a particular environment. Occupational health hazard of noise In Malaysia, noise exposure in the workplace is legislated under the Factories and Machinery Act (Noise Exposure) Regulation 1989, and the Occupational and Safety and Health Act 1994. These regulations make mandatory for noise levels and workers exposure to noise to be measured, assessed and controlled (Leong, 2005). International Labor Organization (ILO) accepts 85 dBA as warning limit and 90 dBA as danger limit for continuous work for 8 h. A-weighted equivalent sound pressure level of 85 dBA results in temporary hearing losses and 90 dBA increases the blood pressure, accelerates the pulse and breathing, decreases brain liquid pressure, causes tension in muscles, and withdrawal of blood in the skin (Sabanci and Uz, 1984). Lonsbury and Martin (2004) gave audiogram results that show audiometric patterns of hearing levels from patients in beginning stages of noise induced hearing loss and examples were given for males and females exposed to noise in different environment including industrial noise. Hearing loss was not observed at frequencies below 1000 Hz and was the sharpest above 2000 Hz for male industrial worker. Patients working in different sectors showed that the hearing loss might not be observed below 2000 Hz in different work environments while others might experience hearing loss at about 1000 Hz. The sensitivity is also affected by gender and the number of years worked in a particular environment. According to Dewangan et al. (2005), the exposure to noise may have both immediate and long-term effects on hearing of the tractor drivers and other farm workers. High noise levels can cause headaches; dizziness; nervousness and stress; sleeping problems; and loss of concentration. Noise can also increase human error, contributing to accidents by masking audible alarms, verbal messages, etc.; harder to process complex information for difficult task; and harder to monitor and interpret unusual events, by narrowing the span of attention. Although this kind of the damage is quite difficult to measure, it is always present and can manifest: in the gastro enteric tract with an increase in acid secretion; in the nervous system with states of fatigue and depressions; in the psyche, with insomnia and headaches (Febo et al., 1983). Jansen (2003) observed that sounds in the range or 70-90 dB cause tiny blood vessels in the toes, fingers, skin and abdominal organs to contract. This narrowing of small blood vessels can reduce blood flow to affected body parts by as much as one-half. Studies have indicated that workers exposed to high levels of industrial noise for 5-30 years have increased blood pressure and statistically significant increases in risk for hypertension, compared to workers in control areas (Passchier and Vermeer, 1993). Sensor neural hearing loss has been common complaint among farmers seen by rural otolaryngologist (Gregg, 1972). Farmers to be among the most hearing impaired workers and most expect to experience significant hearing loss by age 50 (Mahon, 1988). Occupational noise limit In the light of scientific data which shows the negative effects of noise on human health, new legal regulations were made in order to eliminate these effects. One of these regulations is Noise Control Regulation. In this regulation, it is stated that beside the intensity of the noise, the exposure duration in noisy medium can be effective on human health. Therefore it is emphasized that working hours should be determined according to sound pressure level (Aybek et al., 2007). Duration of exposure is also a consideration as well as the frequency content and A-weighting curve is used in practical applications denoted by dB(A) and 85-90 dB(A) have been proposed to be limiting values for 8 hours exposures (Parson, 2000). The effect is more profound to certain frequencies of noise (Parson, 2000). The farmers worked on average 14 hours a day and their exposure was 86 decibels on A-weighted scale (dB (A)) as an 8-hour time-weighted average (8HR TWA). Except for breakfast and lunch breaks, the farmers had nearly continuous noise exposure that exceeded the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) action level of 85 dB (A) (Milz et al., 2008). Legislation, effective since June, 1976, limits the maximum noise level at the driver to 90 dB (A) for all tractors sold in UK (Talamo, 1979). In Malaysia, to protect the workers from excessive exposure to noise, the hearing conservation program was introduced under the Factories and Machinery (Noise Exposure) Regulation 1989. Under this regulations, workers are protected from excessive noise exposure and reducing the risk of NIHL. According to the Factories and Machinery (Noise Exposure) Regulation 1989, for the permissible exposure limit, the employee shall not be exposed to noise level exceeding equivalent continuous A-weighted sound pressure level of 90 dB(A) or exceeding the limits specified in the First Schedule or exceeding daily dose of unity. No employee shall be exposed to noise level exceeding 115 dB (A) at anytime. The 85 dB (A) is adopted as a criterion for action (action level). When the action level is reached or exceeded, it necessitates (NIOSH, 2006). According to the U.S. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, the recommended exposure limit (REL) for occupational noise exposure is 85 dB (A) time weighted average (TWA). Exposures at or above this level are considered as hazardous. They differed from the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) which uses 90 dB (A) TWA. The rationale is to offer greater protection to noise-exposed workers, citing research that indicates an 8% excess risk of hearing loss at the 85 dB (A) TWA limit as opposed to 25% at 90 dB(A). The TWA is the averaging of different exposure levels during an exposure period. The REL for an 8-hr work shift is a TWA of 85 dB (A) using a 3-decibel (dB) exchange rate. The Malaysian Noise Exposure Regulation 1989 adopted a 5 dB exchange rate (OSHA, 2006). In the last 10 years, a considerable number of laws and rules regarding the control of noise in the working environment, also involving the agricultural sector, have come into force. The main purpose of the individual laws and rules were different, but all emphasized the hazard of noise for workers, and consequently the need to control and, if necessary, to reduce the relevant levels. In the European Union, and specifically in Italy, some of them held an important role. For agricultural machinery, the EN 1553 represents a particular reference, while specially for tractors, the EC 74/150 (environmental noise) and EC 77/311 (drivers ear noise) Directives were issued in the 1970s (Domenico and Matteo, 2000). Tractors and machines Agricultural and forestry tractors operate both as vehicles and as engines which provide power on the farm and in the forest. With respect to the noise which they emit, it is generally accepted that use as vehicles has the greater impact on the population at large. Hence the type of the test used to asses noise emission is equivalent to that used for other road vehicles, in which sound pressure level at a bystander position is measured under specified drive-past conditions, as opposed to the measurement of sound power, which is used for lawn-mowers and various items in construction equipment (Stayner, 1988). Parallel to the development in technology, the use of machines in mechanization processes of agricultural production has brought about the factors such as noise, vibration, gas , etc. which affect the working environment of users and inspectors of those machines (Aybek et al., 2007). In order to increase the work success of the machines and to provide the users with safety and comfort these machines must be designed with respect to the human characteristics (Lijedahl et al., 1996). The machines used in agricultural operations such as tractors, combines, shellers, elevators, driers, etc. exposed noise of high level. More hearing loss is encountered among people who work in agricultural facilities than other jobs (Baker, 2002). The mechanization of agriculture; including the use of the internal combustion engine, greatly increased the noise exposure of the US farm population (Matthew, 1968). Equipment manufactured prior to the institution of noise reduction features is often still in use on US farms, as demonstrates by the New York Farm Family Health and hazard Surveillance Program (Beckett et al., 2000). The majority of noise exposure seemed to come from mechanical equipment (Dennis et al., 1995). The mechanization of agriculture, and in particular the large-scale employment of the internal combustion engine, has led to a serious increase during the last few decades of farm workers to noise. For the most damaging environment, noise measurements were made on tractors (Matthews, 1968). Noise isolating enclosure for tractor drivers have the same conflicting performance requirements as hearing defenders in that they are required to exclude harmful noise and yet allow the passage of important information. The tractors drivers and his counterpart in industry may depend on acoustical signals for warnings of danger and for maneuvering instructions when he is working to close limits or when hitching implements to the three point linkage. Other external sounds may be important for example, the tone generated by a component such as a fan may be the most important source of feedback to the driver of machine performance. A change in noise produced also vital where it is associated with the operation of a safety device such as an overload clutch or with the failure of the component. Many tractors in use on farms, however, have a much higher noise level and since tractors have a long life it will be many years before they are phased out (Talamo, 1979). The management of very old tractors is uneconomical. They may be dangerous on the roads, unsafe for the driver and for other vehicles, mainly due to deterioration in performance. Very often the operators are exposed to unfavorable climatic and working conditions (noise, vibrations, etc.), and they are therefore subject to a higher level of stress and to a higher risk of accident or occupational disease. Despite the limit of technical obsolescence of agricultural tractors being commonly fixed at 10 yr (corresponding to an optimum of 1000 working hours per year) a large number of older machines are still in use in Italy. Repair and maintenance operations are frequently neglected on these vehicles, because the farmer does not consider the relevant cost appropriate (Domenico and Matteo, 2000). Hearing protectors In many noise environments it is not practical, economical, or feasible to reduce noise levels at the ear of a listener to within acceptable limits using engineering controls. In these situations, an acceptable noise level may be achieved with the use of personal either single or in combination. The widespread attention given to noise as a pollutant has stimulated the use of hearing protectors in industry as well as around the home and in recreational and in sports activities. This chapter describes the types of ear protectors, characteristics of ear protectors which influence their effectiveness and acceptance, other practical considerations for users of ear protectors, and estimations of the hearing protection which provide. Various types of ear protectors likes earplugs, earmuffs, ear cups on hardhat, ear cups on welding mask, communication headsets and helmets. Although an ear protector can reduce effectively the ambient sound at the ear of the wearer, factors other than hearing protection may actually determine its suitability and acceptability (Nixon, 1979). According to Domenico and Matteo (2000), the function of a hearing protection device (HPD) is to cover or to fill the ears so that the noise reaching the ear drum is attenuated. It is important to emphasize that the HPDs should not be the sole or primary means by which the worker noise exposures are reduced. HPDs should be used only when engineering controls and work practices are not feasible for reducing noise exposures. This seems to be the typical situation for very old and worn tractors. Nevertheless, the degree of attenuation that a HPD provides is dependent on the technical characteristics of the HPD and generally on a range of other factors, such as the wearing time, the motivation and training of the worker. The use of HPDs has been practiced since the 1950s; the first standards to measure their attenuation were issued about 40 years ago. All of them are finalized to obtain an index, in order to define the attenuation of the HPD: noise reduction rating (NRR) and single numbe r rating (SNR) are those more frequently considered. Wearing time is also an important parameter since it can decrease the effective protection provided by a HPD. For example, if a HPD with an NRR of 20 dB is not worn for as little as 30 min in an 8 h work shift, its effective NRR is reduced by 5 dB (Berger, 1980). It is in fact taken into account that wearers may be prone to remove and replace some HPDs more than others, depending on various factors such as comfort, ease of donning and removal, and the interference of the protector with the auditory communications. Many types of H